Existentialism

Existentialism is defined by Google as "a philosophical theory or approach that emphasizes the existence of the individual person as a free and responsible agent determining their own development through acts of the will." In simpler terms, it is searching for purpose in life through free will and choice. In the beginning of Inferno by Dante Alighieri, the character Dante is a bit an existentialist. He centers his existence only on himself. He has no real regard for any higher power moral code that he should abide by. A lack of belief in a moral code or punishment in the afterlife is characteristic of secular existentialism, and Dante embodies a lot of what that philosophy represents. However, as he makes his journey through Hell, he begins to shed some of the more existentialist aspects of his personality and accept that he should live his life in the name of something greater than himself: God.

The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger is one of the greatest existentialist novels of all time. Not only is the author a bit of an existentialist who kept to himself cut off from society, the novel's protagonist, Holden Caulfield, is a classic example of an existentialist. Near the beginning of the novel, Holden is getting a lecture from his history teacher when he abruptly decides he doesn't need to be lectured, and leaves Pencey Prep. For the rest of the novel, Holden is mostly alone. He has complete freedom and struggles to find himself while making all of his own decisions, culminating in a mental breakdown. Holden believes he doesn't need to learn anything from anybody but himself, and isolates himself in order to obtain complete free will. He is a complete and total existentialist.  

Bathos

Bathos is defined as "an abrupt transition in style from the exalted to the commonplace, producing a ludicrous effect" by the Merriam-Webster Dictionary. This is can be observed frequently in the satirical epic poem The Rape of the Lock. Pope will use language that conveys to the reader a dire situation, then abruptly shift his style and talk about Belinda and her lost lock. For example:

“E'er felt such rage, resentment, and despair,
As thou, sad Virgin! for thy ravish'd Hair.” (Pope, 17-20). 

The first of these two lines implies that something awful has befallen a character to make them feel "rage, resentment, and despair." However, the next line reveals that he is talking about Belinda's hair, who's situation is only mildly unfortunate and not warranting of such strong emotions. The ridiculous contrast of the language Pope uses to describe the plot with the events that take place persists throughout the poem to highlight how silly Belinda's adventure really is. 

The film Cast Away employs bathos when depicting the death of Wilson. Wilson is Tom Hanks's companion while he is stranded on an island. Wilson also happens to be a volleyball. When Wilson "dies," Chuck sobs at the loss of his friend. The viewer can't help but be amused as he cries over losing a volleyball, but at the same time completely empathizes with him over losing a close friend. This quick transition makes the viewer feel a wide range of emotions in a short time and become further invested in the story. 

Juxtaposition

Juxtaposition is, in simple terms, the intentional placing of two unlike things near each other in the trxt for comparison or to highlight their differences. In Inferno by Dante Algeri, Dante juxtaposes Farinata’s I  gaze, with the gave of Cavalcanti. Farinata's piercing gaze differs greatly from Cavalcanti, who's anxious eyes dart around the room. By comparing the gazes of the two men he highlights the differences between the things they love. Farinata's love for Florence is calm and impassionate, whereas Cavalcanti's love for his son is passionate and his interruptions show his legitimate concern for his son's welfare. 

Another prime example of Juxtaposition. In the 1972 film, The Godfather, the batptism of a baby is juxtaposed with violent images of people being murdered. This happy moment being showed in parallel with such horrifying images contrasts the two and highlights how horrific the violent scenes are. This generates a wide range of emotion, causing the viewer to be further engrossed in the film. 

Ontology

Ontology is defined as the study of existence, or being. In East of Eden, Samuel exhibits an interest in ontology. It is not enough for him to simply exist, he has to understand. He is always looking for purpose and grand explanations for why we are. He is studying his very existence. 

Similarly, Holden Caulfield in The Catcher in the Rye exhibits a desire to give meanings to the world around him. He cant see a real reason as to why we exist, and throughout the entirety of the novel is studying himself and his existence on this earth. He wants more than to just exist, he wants to understand the purpose of human existence. 

The Sage

Among the major archetypes identified by Carl Jung and observable in East of Eden and pop culture the Sage. In the case of East of Eden Samuel Hamilton plays the role of the sage. The sage archetype is also often referred to as the "mentor." Samuel fits this role perfectly, and he is even characterized directly by Steinbeck as "wise." Samuel is intelligent and capable, and mentors Adam Trask and helps him to learn to cultivate the land. He exhibits a constant desire to understand the world around him, just as the Sage is said to do. He mentions wanting to understand the bible rather than just to know it, despite his wife's isnsistence that there is nothing to understand. Samuel exhibits wisdom far exceeding that of any other character in the novel, as well as a superior understanding of self and a tendency to try to guide others down a path to help them succeed. Becuase of his vast knowledge in the context of the novel, Samuel falls within the archetype of the Sage in East of Eden. 

Similarly, Gandalf the Grey (and later the White) acts as the Sage in J.R.R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings trilogy. Just as Samuel acts as Adam's mentor, Gandalf serves as the mentor and guide of Frodo Baggins. Throughout the course of the series, Gandalf is one of very few characters who demonstrates a true understanding of the evil that the One Ring has brought to Middle Earth. He knows his purpose on Middle Earth: to guide Frodo to destroy the One Ring, and he carries it out diligently. He is constantly explaining to Frodo and his party what they need to do and where they need to go to help them to reach their goal. Gandalf's wisdom is essential in getting Frodo to Mount Doom, and without his help and advice Frodo never could have succeeded. The incredible wisdom and knowledge that Gandalf uses to aid the main characters in The Lord of the Rings clearly highlight the characteristics he displays that demonstrate his role as the Sage within the series.